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In the sociology of crime, the term collective efficacy refers to the ability of members of a community to control the behavior of individuals and groups in the community.〔Sampson, Robert. J., Stephen. W. Raudenbush, and Felton Earls. 1997. () "Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy." ''Science'' 277 (5328): 918-924.〕 Control of people´s behavior allows community residents to create a safe and orderly environment. Collective efficacy involves residents monitoring children playing in public areas, acting to prevent truancy and street corner "hanging" by teenagers, and confronting individuals who exploit or disturb public spaces. Advocates of collective efficacy claim that these measures increase community control over individuals, thus creating an environment where violent crime is less likely to occur.〔Sampson, Robert J. and Stephen W. Raudenbush. 1999. () "Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces: A New Look at Disorder in Urban Neighborhoods." ''American Journal of Sociology'' 105 (3): 603.〕〔Browning, Christopher R. 2002. () "The Span of Collective Efficacy: Extending Social Disorganization Theory to Partner Violence." ''Journal of Marriage and Family'' 64 (4): 833-850.〕 Researchers have argued that increasing collective efficacy can lead to a significant reduction of crime in communities.〔〔Ludwig, Jens, Greg J. Duncan, and Paul Hirschfield. 2001. () "Urban Poverty and Juvenile Crime: Evidence from a Randomized Housing-Mobility Experiment." ''The Quarterly Journal of Economics'' 116 (2): 655-679.〕 Communities with high levels of collective efficacy have been found to have lower rates of violence〔 and homicide,〔Morenoff, Jeffrey D., Robert J. Sampson, and Stephen W. Raudenbush. 2001. () "Neighborhood Inequality, Collective Efficacy, and the Spatial Dynamics of Urban Violence *." ''Criminology'' 39 (3): 517-558.〕 suggesting that community participation in preventing violence reduces crime. Collective efficacy depends on the values shared by community members. If members of a community trust each other and are willing to cooperate to prevent violence and crime, it is more likely that they will be able to create a safe community environment. The concept of collective efficacy has been used to explain why urban neighborhoods differ in the amount of crime that takes place in them. In urban areas where neighbors monitor group behavior and are willing to intervene to break out fights or otherwise prevent disorder, violent crime is less likely to occur.〔Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Thomas Gannon-Rowley. 2002.() "Assessing "Neighborhood Effects": Social Processes and New Directions in Research." ''Annual Review of Sociology'': 443-478.〕 ==Description== Collective efficacy includes behaviors, norms and actions that residents of a given community use to achieve public order (sociologists refer to these as “informal mechanisms”). In communities where these informal practices are enforced on a day-to-day basis by community members, individuals are less likely to engage in delinquent behavior.〔Simons, Ronald L., Leslie Gordon Simons, Callie Harbin Burt, Gene H. Brody, and Carolyn Cutrona. 2005. () "Collective Efficacy, Authoritative Parenting and Delinquency: A Longitudinal Test of a Model Integrating Community-and Family-Level Processes *." ''Criminology'' 43 (4): 989-1029.〕 A key element of the collective efficacy perspective is that it focuses on the effects of informal norms and practices of the community in preventing crime, rather than on the effects of formal, established institutions (such as police forces).〔 In order for collective efficacy to develop in a specific community or neighborhood, it is necessary that members of the community have strong feelings of trust and solidarity for each other.〔 In communities without clear rules for cooperation between neighbors, or where neighbors distrust or fear each other, residents are less likely to work together to supervise the behavior of individuals in the community. Conversely, it is in those communities where people trust each other more and are more willing to cooperate that community supervision is more likely to deter crime. Collective efficacy thus requires that community members feel strongly bonded to each other. Collective efficacy is thought to reduce the likelihood of crime by preventing public disputes from erupting into violence.〔 In communities where residents are less active in enforcing order, groups of peers and associates who gather in public places are more likely to use violent means to solve disputes. The emergence of violence in turn increases the probability of these groups turning into criminal gangs, drug trafficking rings, and prostitution rackets, among other types of delinquent associations. Collective efficacy not only reduces crime in public places, but also lowers the likelihood of some forms of crime in private spaces (for example, inside the home). A 2002 Chicago study, for example, found that collective efficacy reduces the probability of both female homicide and physical violence against females by male partners.〔 According to the author of the study, these results can be explained by the finding that communities with high levels of trust, cooperation, and supervision are more likely to offer women several types of assistance, including support, advice, shelter, and social pressure on batterers to desist.〔Bowker, L. H. 1993. "A Battered Woman´s Problems Are Social, not Psychological," in R. J. Gelles and D. R. Loseke (eds.), ''Current Controversies on Family Violence'', 154-165. Newbury Park, NJ: Sage.〕 The 2002 study, however, also found that the association between collective efficacy and lower levels of crime against women is stronger in communities where violence between intimate partners is commonly seen as negative. In other words, collective efficacy reduces crime in public and private spaces, but its effectiveness for deterring specific types of crime is higher in communities where those types of crime are disapproved of. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Collective efficacy」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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